Byline: June 7, 2025 | Global Resources & Technology Desk
Rare earth minerals — a group of 17 chemically similar elements — are often referred to as the “vitamins of the modern world.” Though used in tiny amounts, they are essential to powering smartphones, electric vehicles, wind turbines, advanced defense systems, and more. Yet, behind their growing demand lies a story of complex geopolitics, environmental concerns, and a global race to secure strategic resources.
What Are Rare Earth Elements?
Rare earth elements (REEs) are a set of 17 metallic elements on the periodic table. These include:
Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs):
- Lanthanum (La)
- Cerium (Ce)
- Praseodymium (Pr)
- Neodymium (Nd)
- Promethium (Pm) (radioactive and rare in nature)
- Samarium (Sm)
Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREEs):
- Europium (Eu)
- Gadolinium (Gd)
- Terbium (Tb)
- Dysprosium (Dy)
- Holmium (Ho)
- Erbium (Er)
- Thulium (Tm)
- Ytterbium (Yb)
- Lutetium (Lu)
- Scandium (Sc) (sometimes classified with REEs)
- Yttrium (Y) (often grouped with HREEs)
Despite their name, rare earths are not actually rare in the Earth’s crust — but economically viable deposits are uncommon, and extraction is environmentally and technically complex.
Where Are Rare Earths Found?
Top Producers and Reserves (2024 Data)
| Country | Estimated Reserves (Million Metric Tons) | 2024 Production (Metric Tons REO) |
|---|---|---|
| China | 44 | 210,000 |
| Vietnam | 22 | 33,000 |
| Brazil | 21 | 4,000 |
| Russia | 12 | 2,600 |
| India | 6.9 | 6,000 |
| United States | 2.3 | 43,000 |
| Australia | 4.2 | 20,000 |
Other countries like Canada, Greenland, and South Africa also have emerging reserves under exploration or development.
China dominates the rare earth industry, accounting for about 60–70% of global production and controlling over 85% of processing capacity.
How Are They Mined and Processed?
Rare earth elements are usually extracted from bastnäsite, monazite, and xenotime ores through complex hydrometallurgical processes involving:
- Crushing and milling the ore
- Chemical leaching with acids
- Solvent extraction and separation of individual REEs
- Precipitation and calcination into oxides or metal forms
This process produces toxic and radioactive waste, especially when thorium and uranium are present. This is a key reason why mining and processing are concentrated in countries with looser environmental regulations or where the government subsidizes cleanup costs — like China.
What Are Rare Earths Used For?
Rare earths are critical to a range of high-tech, clean energy, and defense applications:
Clean Energy & Mobility
- Neodymium and praseodymium: Powerful permanent magnets for wind turbines and EV motors.
- Dysprosium and terbium: Stabilize magnets under high heat.
- Lanthanum: Used in hybrid vehicle batteries and camera lenses.
Electronics
- Europium and terbium: Fluorescent and LED displays.
- Yttrium: Phosphors in TVs and smartphones.
- Gadolinium: MRI contrast agents.
Defense & Aerospace
- Samarium–cobalt magnets: Used in missile guidance systems and fighter jets.
- Scandium: Strengthens aluminum alloys in aerospace components.
- Erbium: Optical amplifiers for military-grade fiber optics.
Other Applications
- Polishing powders, catalysts, lasers, ceramics, and glass additives.
“Without rare earths, much of our modern life — from iPhones to F-35 jets — would simply not function,” says Dr. Leila Wang, materials science professor at MIT.
Country-by-Country Breakdown of Rare Earth Resources
China
- Type: Both light (LREEs) and some heavy (HREEs)
- Key Deposits:
- Bayan Obo (Inner Mongolia): World’s largest REE deposit (mainly bastnäsite – rich in LREEs)
- South China clays (Jiangxi, Guangdong): Ionic clay deposits – major global source of HREEs like dysprosium, yttrium
- Notable REEs: Neodymium, praseodymium, cerium, dysprosium, terbium
United States
- Type: Primarily light REEs
- Key Deposit:
- Mountain Pass (California): One of the richest bastnäsite deposits in the world
- Notable REEs: Cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, praseodymium
- HREEs: Present in small amounts; the U.S. depends on imports for many HREEs
Australia
Type: Light REEs, some heavy REEs
- Key Deposits:
- Mount Weld (Western Australia): One of the richest LREE mines (bastnäsite & monazite)
- Brown Range and Nolans Project: Some potential for HREEs
- Notable REEs: Neodymium, praseodymium, dysprosium, terbium (via processing with partners like Malaysia’s Lynas)
Brazil
- Type: Light REEs, some HREEs
- Key Deposits: Several monazite-rich coastal deposits
- Notable REEs: Cerium, lanthanum, neodymium
- Note: Potential in alkaline carbonatite complexes not fully explored
Russia
- Type: LREEs and moderate HREE potential
- Key Deposits:
- Lovozero (Kola Peninsula): Eudialyte deposit, rare HREE source in Europe
- Tomtor (Yakutia): Large niobium-REE deposit (mostly LREEs, some HREEs)
- Notable REEs: Cerium, neodymium, yttrium, dysprosium
India
- Type: Primarily LREEs
- Key Deposits: Monazite-rich coastal sands in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Odisha
- Notable REEs: Cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, praseodymium
- Note: Limited HREE extraction due to policy and tech constraints
Vietnam
- Type: Mixed REEs, growing HREE interest
- Key Deposits: Dong Pao (bastnäsite and monazite-based deposits)
- Notable REEs: Neodymium, praseodymium, yttrium, dysprosium
Canada
- Type: Broad range of light and heavy REEs
- Key Deposits:
- Nechalacho (Northwest Territories): One of the few potential HREE-rich deposits outside China
- Strange Lake (Quebec): HREE-focused project
- Notable REEs: Neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
Greenland (Denmark)
- Type: Mixed LREEs and HREEs
- Key Deposits:
- Kvanefjeld (Ilimaussaq Complex): Enriched in uranium and REEs
- Notable REEs: Neodymium, dysprosium, yttrium, terbium
Madagascar, Malawi, Namibia
- Type: Growing sources of HREEs
- Key Deposits:
- Tantalus (Madagascar), Songwe Hill (Malawi), Lofdal (Namibia)
- Notable REEs: Dysprosium, terbium, yttrium (mostly ionic clay or carbonatite deposits)
Summary Table: Rare Earth Focus by Country
| Country | Light REEs | Heavy REEs | Key Minerals | Main Use Potential |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| China | ✅✅✅ | ✅✅ | Bastnäsite, ionic clay | Magnets, electronics, defense |
| USA | ✅✅✅ | ❌/Limited | Bastnäsite | EVs, wind turbines, defense |
| Australia | ✅✅✅ | ✅/Moderate | Monazite, bastnäsite | Clean energy, electronics |
| Brazil | ✅✅ | ❌ | Monazite | Catalysts, magnets |
| Russia | ✅✅ | ✅/Moderate | Eudialyte, monazite | Military, electronics |
| India | ✅✅ | ❌/Limited | Monazite | Lighting, defense, electronics |
| Vietnam | ✅✅ | ✅ | Bastnäsite, monazite | EV motors, military tech |
| Canada | ✅✅ | ✅✅ | Eudialyte, bastnäsite | High-end magnets, green tech |
| Greenland | ✅✅ | ✅✅ | Rare-earth-rich uranium | Strategic reserves (not yet mined) |
| Africa (various) | ✅✅ | ✅✅ | Ionic clay, carbonatites | Clean energy, industrial tech |
The Politics of Rare Earths
The supply chain for rare earths is heavily politicized and strategically sensitive.
China’s Dominance and Leverage
Since the 1990s, China has invested heavily in rare earth mining and processing, offering cheap exports while other countries closed mines due to environmental costs.
In 2010, a rare earth embargo against Japan during a territorial dispute shocked global markets. More recently, China threatened export controls on magnet-related rare earths amid U.S.–China tech tensions.
“Rare earths are China’s geopolitical ace,” notes geopolitical analyst James Hawthorne. “They’ve used it before, and they’re prepared to use it again.”
U.S. and Western Response
To reduce reliance on Chinese supplies, the U.S., EU, and allies have launched initiatives including:
- The U.S. Defense Production Act to fund domestic processing.
- Australia’s Lynas Rare Earths, one of the few non-Chinese companies with full supply capabilities.
- New processing facilities in Canada, Texas, and Norway.
- Partnerships with Japan, South Korea, and India on joint exploration and refining.
The “friend-shoring” of rare earth supply chains is central to Western economic security strategy.
Africa and Greenland’s Rising Role
Africa, especially Tanzania, Namibia, and Malawi, is being eyed for large rare earth reserves. China and Western firms are competing for mining rights.
Greenland, with vast untapped deposits, represents a future frontier — but mining there is complicated by environmental and Indigenous rights concerns.
Sustainability and Alternatives
While efforts are underway to find substitutes for rare earths or improve recycling from electronic waste, progress is slow.
- Urban mining — reclaiming REEs from e-waste — is growing but costly.
- Alternative magnets and ceramic materials are in development but often underperform.
“We can optimize usage, but rare earths aren’t going away anytime soon,” says Dr. Jorge Ramírez, head of research at the European Rare Earths Institute.
Conclusion: Strategic Elements for a Sustainable Future
Rare earth minerals, once obscure to the public, have become central to the global economy, geopolitics, and the green energy transition. As the world electrifies and digitizes, securing stable and sustainable access to these critical minerals is no longer just a technical challenge — it’s a political and environmental imperative.
Nations that control rare earths will shape the next era of technological leadership. But doing so responsibly — with respect for communities, ecosystems, and international cooperation — remains the critical test ahead.
Source – USGS Mineral Commodity Summaries (2024) | International Energy Agency (IEA) | European Commission: Raw Materials Information System (RMIS) | MIT Materials Systems Lab | U.S. Department of Energy
